Withania somnifera (L.) Ashwagandha: A Review on Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, Biomedicinal and Traditional uses

 

Arjun Singh*

Department of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University,

Philadelphia, PA 19107, United States.

 

ABSTRACT:

Traditional medicine is a set of knowledge, abilities, and procedures based on assumptions, beliefs, and experiences of traditional societies in order to preserve their health. In many undeveloped countries, many rural or indigenous people place a great importance on traditional herbal medicines. The World Health Organization estimates that 60% of rural Indians use. The usage of herbal supplements increased from 2.5% to 12% over the previous five years. India's transition from traditional to modern medicine has been made easier by the examination of novel drugs, especially those made using components derived from plants. Tannins, alkaloids, sugars, terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, and phenols are a few of the chemical elements included in therapeutic plants that have a specific physiological impact on the human body. Natural therapeutic properties are just one benefit of medicinal plants; they also offer natural disease prevention. In this comprehensive review study research, we are making an effort to summarize, collect the number of plants, and identify their ethnopharmacological characteristics.

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Despite the fact that medicinal plants play a significant role in healthcare and serve as the principal raw material for both conventional and alternative medicine formulations, most people still favor herbal remedies to conventional therapies^1-9. They have received a lot of attention due to their effectiveness, the lack of current medical options, the rising cost of contemporary pharmaceuticals, and cultural preferences. Ethnobotanical research is essential for revealing past and present cultures' perspectives on plants around the world and for preserving specific therapeutic plant knowledge^10-15.

 

Utilizing quantitative ethnobotanical research, plant uses as food, medications for human and animal health, and for economic purposes were identified^16-18. Regarding the protection of plant resources, sustainable development, and the search for new usage patterns, traditional knowledge systems have gained in importance around the world¹⁹. This in-depth examination addresses the ethnomedical, phytochemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological, and clinical aspects of its ethnomedical, phytochemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological, and therapeutic usefulness to a variety of illnesses, particularly cardiovascular issues^20-29. This plant has a good safety record when taken along with other prescription drugs. This review emphasizes numerous pharmacological properties based on diverse studies, including antioxidant, hypotensive, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic, and gastro-productive effect^30-35.

 

METHODS:

Materials:

In this review survey, the available information on various plants based traditionally used for pharmacological, ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and disorder treatment was gathered through electronic database searches using PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, as well as a library search for articles published in peer-reviewed journal articles^1-49.

 

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (l.) Dunal) Physalis somnifera L.

Withania somnifera, also known as ashwagandha, Indian ginseng and winter cherry, is a Solanaceae (nightshade) family and genus Withania annual evergreen shrub that grows in India, the Middle East, and portions of Africa. it has been an important herb in the Ayurvedic and indigenous medical systems for over 3 century. Several additional species in the Withania genus have morphologically similar appearances. Despite the fact that it is used as a medicinal herb in Ayurveda and is offered as a dietary supplement in many countries, there is inadequate scientific data to suggest that it is safe or helpful for treating any ailment^14-49.

 

As a plant parts are using Whole plant, roots, leaves, stem, green berries, fruits, seeds, bark for their pharmacological activities such as abortifacient, adaptogen, alterative, amebicide, anabolic, analgesic, antiaging, antianemic, antiarthritic, antibacterial, antiedemic,  antiendotoxin, antiepileptic, antifertility, antiherpetic, antiinflammatory, antimitotic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antipyretic, antisarcomic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antistress, antitumor, antiulcer, antiviral, aphrodisiac, bradycardic, cerebrotonic, chemopreventive, cns-depressant, contraceptive, cytotoxic, deobstruent, diuretic, ecbolic, emmenagogue, fungicide, gaba-nergic, hemopoietic, hepatoprotective, hypnotic, hypotensive, immunodepressant, immunomodulator, immunostimulant, insecticide, interferonogenic, lactagogue, memorigenic, narcotic, nervine, pain, pediculicide, phagocytotic, poison, proteolytic, respirastimulant, sedative, staminagenic, tonic, tranquilizer, vermifuge. Withanolides, which are triterpene lactones, withaferin A, alkaloids, steroidal lactones, tropine, and cuscohygrine are the primary phytochemical ingredients^11-55.

 

There have been 40 withanolides, 12 alkaloids, and several sitoindosides discovered. Because withanolides are structurally similar to the ginsenosides found in Panax ginseng, W. somnifera is known as Indian ginseng.

 

Researchers are always interested in the chemical components of WS^1-55.

1.     Alkaloids:

      Ashwagandhine, cuscohygrine, anahygrine, tropine

2.     Steroidal compounds:

      Ergostane type steroidallactones, withaferin A, withanolides A-y, withasomniferin-A, withasomidienone, withasomniferols A-C, withanone

3.     Saponins:

      Saponins with an extra acyl group (sitoindoside VII and VIII) and withanolides with a glucose at carbon 27 (sitoindoside IX and X) are further ingredients.

4.     Other components:

      The plant also contains withaniol, acylsteryl glucosides, starch, reducing sugar, hantreacotane, ducitol, a variety of amino acids such as aspartic acid, proline, tyrosine, alanine, glycine, glutamic acid, cystine, tryptophan, and a significant level of iron.

 

One of the primary withanolidal active principles identified from the plant is withaferin A, which is chemically described as 4b,27-dihydroxy-5b-6b-epoxy-1-oxowitha-2, 24-dienolide.

WS displayed chemogenetic diversity, with three chemotypes I, II, and III identified thus far.

 

Anaferine (bis (2-piperidylmethyl) ketone); isopelletierine; tropine; pseudotropine; 3tigloyloxtropine; 3- tropyltigloate; cuscohygrine; dlisopelletierine; anahygrine; hygrine; mesoanaferine; visamine; withasomnine, a pyrazole derivative from West Germany; pseudowithanine; Withaniol (a combination of withanolides) and a variety of withanolides, including withaferine-A, withanolide N and O, withanolide D, withanolide p, withanolide Q and R, withanolide y, 14hydroxy steroids, and withanolides G, H, I, J, K, and U.  Withanosides I, II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII are seven novel withanolide glycosides that have been isolated and identified. The two primary withanolides, withaferin A and withanolide D, are thought to be responsible for much of the pharmacological action of WS^35-49.

 

Table 1 Bio-active compounds in the different parts of the plant^19-55

 

 

DISCUSSION:

The extensive survey of literature revealed that the medicinal plants are an important source of many pharmacologically and medicinally important chemicals, such as withaferins, sitoindosides and various useful alkaloids. In Indian variety thirteen Dragendroff positive alkaloids have been reported. The withanolides are the most searched chemical constituents of WS and till date around 138 withanolides with both β and α side chain has been reported apart from various amino acid and other normal plant constituents. The plant has also been widely studied for their various pharmacological activities like antioxidant, anxiolytic, adaptogen, memory enhancing, antiparkinsonian, antivenom, anti-inflammatory, antitumor properties. Various other effects like immunomodulation, hypolipidemic, antibacterial, cardiovascular protection, sexual behaviour, tolerance and dependence have also been studied. Although the results from this review are quite promising for the use of WS as a multi-purpose medicinal agent, several limitations currently exist in the current literature. While WS has been used successfully in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries, more clinical trials should be conducted to support its therapeutic use. It is also important to recognize that WS extracts may be effective not only on isolation but may actually have a modulating effect when given in combination with other herbs or drugs^19-55.

 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The author has no conflicts of interest.

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The author would like to thank NCBI, PubMed and Web of Science for the free database services for their kind support during this study.

 

REFERENCES:

1.      World Health Organization. WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014-2023. World Health Organization, 2013.

2.      World Health Organization. WHO global report on traditional and complementary medicine 2019. World Health Organization, 2019.

3.      Qi, Zhang. "Who traditional medicine strategy. 2014-2023." Geneva: World Health Organization 188 (2013).

4.      World Health Organization. "The regional strategy for traditional medicine in the Western Pacific (2011-2020)." (2012).

5.      World Health Organization. Regional strategy for traditional medicine in the Western Pacific. Manila: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, 2002.

6.      Kasilo, Ossy MJ, and Jean‐Baptiste Nikiema. "World Health Organization perspective for traditional medicine." Novel Plant Bioresources: Applications in Food, Medicine and Cosmetics (2014): 23-42.

7.      Zhang, Qi, Aditi Sharan, Stéphane Alexandre Espinosa, Daniel Gallego-Perez, and John Weeks. "The path toward integration of traditional and complementary medicine into health systems globally: The World Health Organization report on the implementation of the 2014–2023 strategy." The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 25, no. 9 (2019): 869-871.

8.      Hajare, Ashok A, Sachin S Mali, Sonali S Gorde, Jyoti D Thorat, and Sachin S Salunkhe. “Narrative Review: A Rational Approach to Needle Free Insulin Technology,” 2014, 11.

9.      Lakshmi, K. “Effectiveness of Nursing Care of Antenatal Mothers with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.” Asian Journal of Nursing Education and Research 10, no. 3 (2020): 286.

10.   Raju, Vidya, Jasmine Joy Bell, N. J. Merlin, and Shaiju S Dharan. “Ethno Pharmacological Uses of Artocarpus Altilis -A Review.” Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 7, no. 4 (2017): 239.

11.   Somwanshi, Sachin B., Punam D. Bairagi, and Kiran B. Kotade. “Study of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Brief Review.” Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 7, no. 2 (2017): 118.

12.   Yousaf, Aqsa, and Sammia Shahid. “The Study of Anethum Graveolens L. (Dill) in the Case of Diabetes Mellitus (DM).” Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Science 10, no. 4 (2020): 248–56.

13.   Chanda, D., Prieto-Lloret, J., Singh, A., Iqbal, H., Yadav, P., Snetkov, V., Aaronson, P.I., 2016. Glabridin-induced vasorelaxation: Evidence for a role of BKCa channels and cyclic GMP. Life Sciences 165, 26–34.

14.   Gautam, Y., Dwivedi, S., Srivastava, A., Hamidullah, Singh, A., Chanda, D., Singh, J., Rai, S., Konwar, R., Negi, A.S., 2016. 2-(3′,4′-Dimethoxybenzylidene)tetralone induces anti-breast cancer activity through microtubule stabilization and activation of reactive oxygen species. RSC Adv. 6, 33369–33379.

15.   Hamid, A.A., Hasanain, M., Singh, A., Bhukya, B., Omprakash, Vasudev, P.G., Sarkar, J., Chanda, D., Khan, F., Aiyelaagbe, O.O., Negi, A.S., 2014. Synthesis of novel anticancer agents through opening of spiroacetal ring of diosgenin. Steroids 87, 108–118.

16.   Hamid, A.A., Kaushal, T., Ashraf, R., Singh, A., Chand Gupta, A., Prakash, O., Sarkar, J., Chanda, D., Bawankule, D.U., Khan, F., Shanker, K., Aiyelaagbe, O.O., Negi, A.S., 2017. (22β,25R)-3β-Hydroxy-spirost-5-en-7-iminoxy-heptanoic acid exhibits anti-prostate cancer activity through caspase pathway. Steroids 119, 43–52.

17.   Jain, S., Singh, A., Khare, P., Chanda, D., Mishra, D., Shanker, K., Karak, T., 2017. Toxicity assessment of Bacopa monnieri L. grown in biochar amended extremely acidic coal mine spoils. Ecological Engineering 108, 211–219.

18.   Khwaja, S., Fatima, K., Hasanain, M., Behera, C., Kour, A., Singh, A., Luqman, S., Sarkar, J., Chanda, D., Shanker, K., Gupta, A.K., Mondhe, D.M., Negi, A.S., 2018. Antiproliferative efficacy of curcumin mimics through microtubule destabilization. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 151, 51–61.

19.   Kumar, B.S., Ravi, K., Verma, A.K., Fatima, K., Hasanain, M., Singh, A., Sarkar, J., Luqman, S., Chanda, D., Negi, A.S., 2017. Synthesis of pharmacologically important naphthoquinones and anticancer activity of 2-benzyllawsone through DNA topoisomerase-II inhibition. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry 25, 1364–1373.

20.   Mishra, D., Jyotshna, Singh, A., Chanda, D., Shanker, K., Khare, P., 2019. Potential of di-aldehyde cellulose for sustained release of oxytetracycline: A pharmacokinetic study. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 136, 97–105.

21.   Sathish Kumar, B., Kumar, A., Singh, J., Hasanain, M., Singh, A., Fatima, K., Yadav, D.K., Shukla, V., Luqman, S., Khan, F., Chanda, D., Sarkar, J., Konwar, R., Dwivedi, A., Negi, A.S., 2014a. Synthesis of 2-alkoxy and 2-benzyloxy analogues of estradiol as anti-breast cancer agents through microtubule stabilization. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 86, 740–751.

22.   Sathish Kumar, B., Singh, Aastha, Kumar, A., Singh, J., Hasanain, M., Singh, Arjun, Masood, N., Yadav, D.K., Konwar, R., Mitra, K., Sarkar, J., Luqman, S., Pal, A., Khan, F., Chanda, D., Negi, A.S., 2014b. Synthesis of neolignans as microtubule stabilisers. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 22, 1342–1354.

23.   Singh, A., Kumar, B.S., Alam, S., Iqbal, H., Shafiq, M., Khan, F., Negi, A.S., Hanif, K., Chanda, D., 2017. Diethyl-4,4ʹ-dihydroxy-8,3ʹ-neolign-7,7ʹ-dien-9,9ʹ-dionate exhibits AH activity in rats through increase in intracellular cGMP level and blockade of calcium channels. European Journal of Pharmacology 799, 84–93.

24.   Singh, A., Kumar, B.S., Iqbal, H., Alam, S., Yadav, P., Verma, A.K., Khan, F., Shanker, K., Hanif, K., Negi, A.S., Chanda, D., 2019. AH activity of diethyl-4,4’-dihydroxy-8,3’-neolign-7,7’-dien-9,9’-dionate: A continuation study in L-NAME treated wistar rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 858, 172482.

25.   Singh, A., Mohanty, I., Singh, J., Rattan, S., 2020. BDNF augments rat internal anal sphincter smooth muscle tone via RhoA/ROCK signaling and nonadrenergic noncholinergic relaxation via increased NO release. American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 318, G23–G33.

26.   Singh, A., Rattan, S., 2021. BDNF rescues aging-associated internal anal sphincter dysfunction. American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 321, G87–G97.

27.   Singh, A., Singh, J., Rattan, S., 2021. Evidence for the presence and release of BDNF in the neuronal and non‐neuronal structures of the internal anal sphincter. Neurogastroenterology& Motility.

28.   Singh, Aastha, Fatima, K., Singh, Arjun, Behl, A., Mintoo, M.J., Hasanain, M., Ashraf, R., Luqman, S., Shanker, K., Mondhe, D.M., Sarkar, J., Chanda, D., Negi, A.S., 2015. Anticancer activity and toxicity profiles of 2-benzylidene indanone lead molecule. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 76, 57–67.

29.   Singh, Aastha, Fatima, K., Srivastava, A., Khwaja, S., Priya, D., Singh, Arjun, Mahajan, G., Alam, S., Saxena, A.K., Mondhe, D.M., Luqman, S., Chanda, D., Khan, F., Negi, A.S., 2016. Anticancer activity of gallic acid template-based benzylidene indanone derivative as microtubule destabilizer. Chem Biol Drug Des 88, 625–634.

30.   Yadav, P., Iqbal, H., Kumar, K., Kumar, P., Mishra, D., Singh, A., Pal, A., Mukhopadhyay, P., Vamadevan, B., Singh, D., Negi, A.S., Chanda, D., 2022. 2-Benzyllawsone protects against polymicrobial sepsis and vascular hyporeactivity in swiss albino mice. European Journal of Pharmacology 917, 174757.

31.   Manmohan, S., Arjun, S., Khan, S. P., Eram, S., &Sachan, N. K., 2012. Green chemistry potential for past, present and future perspectives. International Research Journal of Pharmacy, 3, 31-36.

32.   Singh A, Kumar BS, Alam S, Iqbal H, Shafiq M, Khan F, Negi AS, Hanif K, Chanda D. Corrigendum to "Diethyl-4,4'-dihydroxy-8,3'-neolign-7,7'-dien-9,9'-dionate exhibits AH activity in rats through increase in intracellular cGMP level and blockade of calcium channels" [Eur. J. Pharmacol. 799 (2017) 84-93]. Eur J Pharmacol. 2017 Jul 5;806:111. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.04.033. Erratum for: Eur J Pharmacol. 2017 Mar 15;799:84-93. PMID: 28495016.

33.   Singh, A., R. Sharma, K. M. Anand, S. P. Khan, and N. K. Sachan. "Food-drug interaction." International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Chemical Science 1, no. 1 (2012): 264-279.

34.   Thanh-Hoang, N.-V.; Loc, N.; Nguyet, D.; Thien-Ngan, N.; Khang, T.; Cao, H.; Le, L. Plant Metabolite Databases: From Herbal Medicines to Modern Drug Discovery. J. Chem. Inf. Model. 2020, 60, 1101–1110.

35.   Kumar, S.; Malhotra, R.; Kumar, D. Euphorbia hirta: Its chemistry, traditional and medicinal uses, and pharmacological activities. Pharmacogn. Rev. 2010, 4, 58–61.

36.   Ramu,F.A.;Kumar,S.R.ScientificevaluationoftraditionallyknowninsulinplantCostusspeciesforthe treatment of diabetes in human. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biosci. Plant Biol. 2016, 3, 87–91.

37.   Jayasri,M.A.;Gunasekaran,S.;Radha,A.;Mathew,T.L.AntidiabeticeffectofCostuspictusleavesinnormal and streptozotocin-induced diabetes rats. Int. J. Diabetes Metab. 2008, 16, 117–122.

38.   Sidhu, A.K.; Wani, S.; Tamboli, P.S.; Patil, S.N. In Vitro Evaluation of Anti-Diabetic Activity of Leaf and Callus Extracts of Costus pictus. Int. J. Recent Sci. Res. 2014, 3, 1622–1625.

39.   Prakash,K.; Harini,H.; Rao,A.; Rao,P.N. A review on Isulin plant(CostusigneusNak). Pharmacogn.Rev. 2014, 8, 67–72.

40.   RadhaDevi, G.M. A Comprehensive Review On Costus Pictus D. Don.Int.J.Pharm.Sci.Res.2019, 10, 3187–3195.

41.   Dhar, M.L., Dhar, M.M., Dhawan, B.N., Mehrotra, B.N., Ray, C. 1968. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 6 (4), 232-247.

42.   Dhawan, B.N., Dubey, M.P., Mehrotra, B.N., Rastogi, R.P., Tandon, J.S. 1980. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part 9. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 18, 594-606.

43.   ErmiAbriyani, Lia Fikayuniar. Screening Phytochemical, Antioxidant Activity and Vitamin C Assay from Bungo perak-perak (Begonia versicolarIrmsch) leaves. Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2020; 10(3):183-187.

44.   Bhope SG, Kuber VV, Patil MJ, Ghosh VK. Validated HPTLC Method for the Quantitation of Andrographolide from Raw Material and Pharmaceutical Dosage Form. Asian J. Research Chem. 2(3): July-Sept., 2009, page 314-317.

45.   Panlasigui, L.N., Panlilio, L.M., Madrid, J.C. 1995. Glycemic response in normal subjects to five different legumes commonly used in the Philippines. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 46 (2), 155-160.

46.   Marles, R.J., Farnsworth, N.R. 1995. Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents. Phytomedicine 2, 133-189.

47.   Kolhe Rohini C., Chaudhari Rajesh Y. A Review on Phytopharmacological Profile of Traditionally used medicinal plant Parkia biglandulosa (Mimosaceae). Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2020; 10(1): 34-38.

48.   M. Ezhumalai, G. Hemalatha, J.P. Poornima, K.V. Pugalendi. Inhibition of Lactobacillus growth by amino acids and phytochemicals in the fermentation of curd by disc diffusion method. Asian J. Pharm. Res. 3(4): Oct. - Dec.2013; Page 189-193.

49.   Chin, Y., Balunas, M., Chai, H., Kinghorn, A., 2006. Drug Discovery From Natural Sources. The AAPS Journal 08, E239–E239.

50.   Nikhat F., Satyanarayana D., Shastri C.S., Rajni S., Sheikh A.S.. The Phytochemicals explored from the roots of Syzygiumcuminni (L) skeel assessed for Anti-hyperglycemic activity. Asian J. Research Chem. 6(10): October 2013; Page 920-925.

51.   ThombreNilima, Shimpi Pranali2, Thete Madhura. Medicinal plant as a source of Antipyretic drug: A Review. Asian J. Pharm. Tech. 2021; 11(1):84-87.

52.   Rahul Vikram Singh, Prabhakar Semwal, Taranjeet Kapoor. Medicinal Potential of Six Different Plant Species of Dehradun District, Uttarakhand. Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 4(3): July-Sept. 2014; Page 134-139.

53.   An Aqueous Extract of the Leaves of Chromolaena odorata Moderated Plasma Biochemical and Hematological Indices of Sub-Chronic Salt-Loaded Rats. Asian J. Pharm. Res. 4(1): Jan.-Mar. 2014; Page 24-35.

54.   AK Meena, MM Rao, RP Meena, P Panda, Renu. Pharmacological and Phytochemical Evidences for the Plants of Wedelia Genus– A Review. Asian J. Pharm. Res. 1(1): Jan.-Mar. 2011; Page 07-12.

55.   Arjun Singh. A Review of various aspects of the Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical, Pharmacognostical, and Clinical significance of selected Medicinal plants. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Technology; 12(4):349-0. doi: 10.52711/2231-5713.2022.00055

 

 

Received on 05.12.2022         Modified on 17.03.2023

Accepted on 10.06.2023   ©Asian Pharma Press All Right Reserved